Classicism: Return to the Ideals of Antiquity

Classicism represents one of the most significant turning points in European art and cultural history. Between 1770 and 1840, most art forms changed in form and content. This affected not only the visual arts, with painting, sculpture and architecture, but also other arts such as theatre, literature and music, as well as design, fashion and interiors.

The new style was embedded in a process of transformation affecting society as a whole, which also encompassed traditional structures of rule. Even though the high point of Classicism lasted only a little more than half a century, it brought lasting changes to the visual arts, some of which continue to have an effect to this day. Moreover, Classicism was not merely a regional phenomenon, but was able to spread, as one of the few styles, across the whole of Europe and as far as North America.

In essence, Classicism in the visual arts was based on three fundamental pillars:

1. The style of Classicism was decisively inspired by the works of art of Greek and Roman antiquity.
2. The highest maxim for the design of sculptures, paintings and architecture was understated beauty. The aesthetic was characterised by clarity of form, harmony, natural proportions and simple elegance. In this way, Classicism distanced itself from pompous and emotion-driven styles such as Baroque and Rococo.
3. In Classicism, the spirit of the Enlightenment was also articulated in art. The form and content of the works were oriented towards values such as reason, rational thought and morality.

In the following, the characteristic features of Classicism will be examined more closely. Among other things, the circumstances of its emergence, the typical characteristics of paintings and sculptures, and important representatives of Classicism and their works will be explained in greater detail. The focus will be on painting and sculpture. Finally, a look will be taken at the significance of classicist art in the present.

How Did Classicism Arise?

Various circumstances and influences ensured that Classicism could develop as a new style of the visual arts from the middle of the 18th century onwards. Several factors made this possible or contributed to it: changes in politics and society, the urge for a stylistic reorientation, and a growing interest in the art of antiquity.

Europe in Times of Political and Social Change

From the middle of the 18th century, many countries in Europe were in a phase of political and social upheaval. Several significant events determined what happened:

• In France, the French Revolution from 1789 onwards had led to profound change within the state and society. In the course of this, the nobility and clergy lost power, and the bourgeoisie gained in importance.
• The Industrial Revolution, which began around 1760, changed economic and social conditions in Europe.
• The Coalition Wars from 1792 to 1815 resulted in territorial borders shifting and power relations changing.
• The whole of Europe stood under the sign of the Enlightenment. Science and rational thought determined social and political action.

Above all, the trends towards democratisation and rationalisation favoured the formation of Classicism:

• In many countries, traditional hierarchies and power relations began to falter. This particularly affected the structures of absolutist monarchies as well as the influence of the churches. Consequently, the pompous and overloaded stylistic elements of Baroque and Rococo favoured by the nobility and clergy also gradually disappeared. Classicist art understood itself as a radical counter-programme to the preceding epochs.
• The philosophy of the Enlightenment was reflected in the visual arts. As in many other areas of life, logic and reason now also entered painting, sculpture and architecture. Both the choice of pictorial themes and the artistic executions followed rational principles. The works were no longer intended to appeal to the senses and emotions, but to the mind. More strongly than before, artists now took nature as their model and strove for realistic depictions.
• In the restless times at the turn of the 18th to the 19th century, painting and sculpture were meant to provide orientation. Many authorities were called into question, which in turn led to uncertainty and disorientation. In this period of great upheaval, art at least was to be a place of order, purity, morality and discipline.

Classicism Was a Countermovement to the Baroque

Among both artists and patrons, the signs pointed towards a fundamental change in style. The artistic modes of design of Baroque and Rococo no longer suited the general social mood. Rationalisation, secularisation and democratisation were now also to be reflected in a changed artistic style. For this reason, the stylistic elements of classicist art consciously set themselves apart from the splendid and bombastic aesthetic of the preceding epochs. Works from antiquity, whose mode of representation was strongly oriented towards reality, now served as models. In Classicism, too, people now reflected once again on the beauty and simplicity of nature. The style was now characterised by reduced, clear structures and measured forms of design without extravagance.

Classicism Found Its Stylistic Models in Archaeology

An essential impulse for the development of Classicism came not from art itself, but from a science – archaeology. From the beginning of the 18th century, the interest of archaeologists focused on the area around Vesuvius in Italy. Large parts of the region had been covered by a thick layer of lava and ash after its eruption in 79 AD. The excavations in Herculaneum in 1738 and in Pompeii in 1748 brought sensational artefacts to light. Sculptures, frescoes and mosaics in the best state of preservation could be presented to the public.

The results of the excavations caused a wave of enthusiasm for ancient art in many European countries. As a result, artists and craftspeople also discovered the stylistic elements of Greek and Roman art objects, buildings and everyday objects for themselves. The simple mode of design of antiquity, oriented towards nature, was to become style-forming for Classicism.

Johann Joachim Winckelmann Is Regarded as the "Intellectual Father" of Classicism

In the reporting on the exploration of ancient sites in the 18th century, the German archaeologist, antiquarian and librarian Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717 – 1768) played an important role. With his writings, he decisively shaped the image of antiquity in the German-speaking world and contributed substantially to the development of Classicist art.

In 1755, Winckelmann wrote his first major text, "Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture". Already here he emphasised the importance of ancient art for contemporary works as well. From this work also comes the much-quoted sentence with which Winckelmann already formulated an important guiding principle for the visual arts of Classicism:

"The only way for us to become great, indeed, if possible, inimitable, is the imitation of the ancients."

While still in Germany, Winckelmann was entrusted with reporting to the Saxon court on the discoveries in the region around Vesuvius. He travelled to Italy several times and processed his impressions in numerous scholarly writings. With his works, Winckelmann made a significant contribution to the rediscovery of antiquity.

He put forward the thesis that the key to education and ethics was intensive engagement with antiquity. In Greek works of art in particular, he saw realised what, in his view, was fundamentally the task of art: the depiction of beauty. A few years later, many visual artists of Classicism were to draw on Winckelmann’s stylistic guiding ideas. With his attractively formulated writings, however, he was also able to awaken interest and enthusiasm for antiquity among large sections of the population.

What Are the Most Important Characteristics of Classicist Painting?

The painting style of Classicism was intended to reflect the objectivity, order and dignity that defined the entire epoch. To achieve this, artists used a clear, reduced mode of representation without excessive ornamentation.

Typical characteristics of Classicism were:

• Clear lines: Classicist painting strove for an objective and detailed depiction of its motifs. To achieve this, artists worked predominantly with clear contours, which they defined with fine lines. In the case of somewhat larger areas, they endeavoured to ensure that brushstrokes were not recognisable and that the application of paint appeared as even as possible.
• Muted colours: The rationality of the paintings and of the motifs shown was to be supported by a moderate use of colour. Thus, painters in Classicism predominantly used cool, muted tones. Colours were regarded as a means to an end and were not intended to distract from the characters and pictorial themes. At the same time, the subtle colours were intended to help convey an impression of calm and harmony. Painters also restrained themselves in the application of colour and avoided, for example, impasto layers of paint.
• Perfect beauty as an ideal: A typical characteristic of Classicism was that painters tried to create perfect pictorial worlds in their paintings that appeared as natural as possible. They strove for a realistic mode of representation of proportions, motif details and perspective. In order to create especially harmonious pictorial worlds, however, they certainly also moved away from reality and depicted their motifs in an idealising or beautifying way. The beauty and perfection of the works also fulfilled a very specific purpose: patrons hoped for a positive, moralising effect on the audience.
• A clearly structured pictorial composition: The striving for order and objectivity was also reflected in the pictorial compositions. The pictorial scenes had a clear structure and were laid out very clearly. Painters also mostly restricted themselves to a few relevant pictorial objects. They dispensed with excessive staffage or ornaments that were not immediately necessary. In many cases, they staged their pictorial scenes as if on a theatre stage. A symmetrical arrangement was also widespread. For example, some works by Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781 – 1841) look as though they had been mirrored along a central axis.

Classicism Also Brought New Themes and Motifs

Many traditional genres were found in classicist painting. Portraits, nudes and still lifes were just as popular as genre scenes and history painting. Somewhat rarer, but certainly still represented, were depictions of landscapes and architecture.

A major focus was on portraits of important contemporary and historical personalities. Many painters devoted themselves to influential and significant figures, for example Napoleon Bonaparte, Jeanne d’Arc, Empress Joséphine, Frederick the Great or Giacomo Casanova. Important historical events were also frequently taken up, such as the "Tennis Court Oath", the "Coronation of Napoleon I" or "The Death of Julius Caesar". Equally popular motifs were characters from Greek and Roman mythology, for example Oedipus, Jupiter, Venus, Cupid or Psyche. Famous scenes from mythological narratives such as "The Rape of the Sabine Women" or "The Judgement of Paris" were also taken up. At the same time, painters continued to address biblical events, for example "The Annunciation", "Christ’s Entry into Jerusalem", "The Adoration of the Magi" or "Adam and Eve".

Artists also drew inspiration from contemporary literature, for example from the works of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and William Shakespeare. Self-portraits were also very popular among painters. Francisco de Goya, Angelika Kauffmann, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Anton Raphael Mengs and Anton Graff, among others, painted themselves – often more than just once.

Regardless of the motifs, it applied to artworks in Classicism that they had no end in themselves. Paintings and sculptures were not permitted – as has been familiar at least since the 20th century – to stand only for themselves. Even though many works of art from Classicism were mostly of high quality and masterly perfection, this was not enough. Rather, art in Classicism was intended to fulfil an educational mission. It was intended not only to delight the audience, but also to make them better people. Themes such as reason, morality, patriotism, virtue and discipline received a visible form through paintings and sculptures. This could happen, for example, through the glorifying depiction of a person or a moral allegory. Many patrons – such as heads of state, aristocrats or representatives of the rising, wealthy bourgeoisie – used artworks in this way deliberately for their own purposes.

The Characteristics of Sculptures in Classicism: Ancient Ideals as Models

The artists of Classicism allowed many characteristics of ancient sculpture to flow into their works. In order to study the originals, many of them travelled to the findspots in Italy or visited museums in which ancient sculptures were exhibited. In their works, they were decisively inspired by the sculptures of antiquity both in their formal language and in their materials. Only in the painting of the sculptures did they deviate from their models.

The Mode of Representation of Antiquity Suited the Classicist Sculptors

The classicist worldview was also to be reflected in the sculptures of this epoch. The highest maxims for the design of sculptures in Classicism were beauty and perfection. Through this, they were meant to serve as symbols of morality and virtue. For this reason, sculptors endeavoured to design the forms as flawlessly and naturally as possible. They strove for an anatomically correct depiction with realistic proportions and great attention to detail. Now and then, however, they also consciously deviated from the real models and depicted their motifs in an idealised way.

The Sculptures Were Made From Marble, Bronze and Plaster

The sculptors of Classicism also used almost the same materials as in antiquity. White marble was frequently used for the sculptures. Due to its hardness and durability, it was also suitable for large and detailed sculptural works. Its white base colour also fitted into the concept of pure, graceful and noble works of art, as they were expected in Classicism. However, sculptors did not only carve their figures from blocks of marble with hammer and chisel. They also used bronze casting or modelled sculptures from plaster.

The "White Sculptures" of Antiquity Are a Widespread Misconception

In one decisive respect, sculptures in Classicism differed from their Greek and Roman models: they were not painted and retained the natural colour of the stone. This was because in the 18th century – and for a long time afterwards – it had been assumed that the sculptures of antiquity had also been unpainted. At least this was the image conveyed to the public.

More precise examinations of ancient finds with modern measuring instruments prove today, however, that the Greeks and Romans of that epoch had indeed also painted their sculptures with bright colours. Over the centuries, however, the colours had faded or flaked off.

Despite these findings, the sculptures of antiquity are still associated with white surfaces to this day. The archaeologist Johann Joachim Winckelmann shares responsibility for this. He too spread the image of white sculptures in his writings. Today it is assumed that Winckelmann did this against his better knowledge. It is recorded that even in the 18th century he was certainly already aware that traces of colour had been found on the artefacts. But in public he never questioned the idea of white sculptures. It fitted too well with the ideals of purity and clarity that were propagated in Classicism.

Important Representatives of Classicism

During the epoch of Classicism, numerous significant works of art history were created. Some of the most important representatives of Classicism and their works will be presented below.

Jacques-Louis David (1748 – 1825): The Frenchman is one of the most important history painters of Classicism. In his works, he addressed current events of his time, such as the "Tennis Court Oath" during the French Revolution. Later, he supported Napoleon with numerous heroic depictions from his reign. Alongside motifs from contemporary events, David devoted himself to portrait painting and Greek mythology. Among his most famous works today are "Bonaparte Crossing the Alps at the Great St Bernard Pass" and "The Death of Marat".

Angelika Kauffmann (1741 – 1807): The painter born in Switzerland was one of the few women who were able to make a name for themselves in the male-dominated art of Classicism. She achieved her breakthrough in 1764 with a portrait of the archaeologist Johann Joachim Winckelmann. Alongside portraits of famous contemporaries, in her work she devoted herself to history painting and scenes from mythology; she also created numerous self-portraits.

Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein (1751 – 1829): Tischbein's portrait "Goethe in the Campagna" is likely to be one of the best-known motifs in painting in Germany. The legendary work also earned the German painter the name "Goethe-Tischbein". Yet beyond this he created an even far larger Œuvre. Alongside portraits of his contemporaries, he devoted himself to many other genres, including landscapes, animal depictions and still lifes. Tischbein was also involved in writings on art theory. Together with the British art collector William Hamilton, he examined the significance of vase paintings for Greek painting.

Anton Graff (1736 – 1813): Graff's painting "Frederick the Great, King of Prussia" from the year 1781 probably still hangs in countless German living rooms today. The Swiss painter had made a name for himself above all as a portrait artist. His great talent consisted in capturing the character of those portrayed authentically. Many important figures of Classicism had themselves painted by Graff. He portrayed aristocrats, statesmen and generals just as much as scientists, writers and actors.

Antonio Canova (1757 – 1822): The Italian Antonio Canova was among the pioneers of classicist sculpture. His work included statues, funerary monuments, frescoes and portrait busts. He worked for monarchs and princes throughout Europe and took on prestigious commissions such as the funerary monuments of Popes Clement XIII and Clement XIV. In his works, he also devoted himself to scenes and figures from Greek mythology. In addition, he portrayed numerous people from contemporary history, for example Napoleon Bonaparte or the Italian poet Vittorio Alfier. Among his best-known sculptures are "Cupid and Psyche" and "Pauline Bonaparte".

Johann Gottfried Schadow (1764 – 1850): The Germans owe Johann Gottfried Schadow one of the most important landmarks of the republic – the Quadriga on the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin. Schadow is today among the best-known German representatives of Classicism and is regarded as the founder of the Berlin School of Sculpture. Alongside the Quadriga, he created numerous other significant sculptures such as the "Princesses Group" (1797) and the monuments to Frederick II and Martin Luther. He also created busts of other important figures of contemporary history such as Nicolaus Copernicus, Immanuel Kant and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.

Christian Daniel Rauch (1777 – 1857): Christian Daniel Rauch was one of Johann Gottfried Schadow's pupils and, like his teacher, decisively shaped the art of Classicism. Rauch created numerous monumental statues and monuments of important people of his time. Many of them can still be seen in public spaces today, for example the monument to King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria in Munich, the monument to Frederick the Great in Berlin or the statue of Albrecht Dürer in Nuremberg.

Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770 – 1844): Bertel Thorvaldsen was an important representative of Classicism from Denmark. He spent many years of his life in Italy, where he was able to study the sculptures of antiquity. Thorvaldsen received numerous commissions from the state and the church throughout Europe. Among other things, he created the tomb for Pope Pius VII in the Vatican. His works can still be seen today in numerous European cities in public squares, for example the Maximilian Monument in Munich or the Copernicus Monument in Warsaw.

The Style of Classicism Is Still Popular Today

With their artistic form concept, the artists of Classicism strove for a certain timelessness in their works. How well they succeeded in this can be seen from the great popularity that the works from this epoch still have today. Classicist characteristics such as a clear and structured design, perfect beauty and understated expression still make the works popular today. For this reason, the works of Classicism are still major crowd-pullers in many European cities, and many renowned museums have their own departments devoted to this epoch.

Yet, the style of Classicism can also easily be brought into one's own home. High-quality replicas of paintings and sculptures from this period bring the spirit and aesthetic of Classicism to life. A painting reproduction in the home or even a larger statue in the garden is always an eye-catcher and radiates the elegance of this epoch.